【前言】

语言服务兴起于20世纪90年代的欧美。2010年，中国翻译协会首次正式在我国提出“语言服务”的概念。语言服务指以语言能力为核心，以促进跨语言、跨文化交流为目标，提供语际信息转化服务和产品，以及相关研究咨询、技术研发、工具应用、资产管理、教育培训等专业化服务的现代服务业。

根据统计，尽管全球经济不断受到挑战，但语言服务行业依然保持增长，2022年，全球语言服务产值突破600亿美元。我国对外开放、中外人文交流和“一带一路”建设不断促进我国的语言服务市场增长。2022年，我国的翻译公司和各类型的语言服务企业总计超过42万家，总产值突破554亿元人民币。语言服务发展的同时也带来巨大的人才需求。

语言服务教育在我国是一个新生事物，目标是培养行业需要的口笔译、语言技术和项目管理人才。2007年，我国开办翻译硕士专业学位教育，为语言服务行业培养翻译人才。近年来，部分高校通过开设研究方向或独立设置二级学科点等方式，招收本地化管理、技术传播、翻译项目管理、医学语言服务、国际语言服务研究生，培养“语言+技术”“语言+专业”和“语言+管理”的复合型和应用型人才。部分高校成立了语言服务研究院所、应急语言服务基地(中心),召开语言服务论坛，编写语言服务研究报告等。2020年，中国英汉语比较研究会批准成立语言服务研究专业委员会，出版《语言服务研究》集刊。2022年，商务部、教育部、中国外文局等部委批准成立特色语言服务出口基地，国家发改委和商务部批准语言服务进入鼓励外商投资产业目录。以上举措有力地促进了语言服务的发展。

为了帮助广大师生了解国外语言服务领域学术研究和行业发展动态，满足高校语言服务学科建设、人才培养、教学科研的需要，上海外语教育出版社组织专家精心策划了“新文科语言服务学术文库”,从国外原版引进多种语言服务学术著作。本文库涵盖翻译及语言服务的职业技能和企业管理两个方面，包括翻译教学、技术文档写作、本地化技术、质量管理、服务管理、众包翻译管理等，体系完整，内容丰富，值得推荐。同时，为了方便读者理解重点，文库各书还专门配有中文导读和推荐阅读书目。

本文库可用作研究生教材，也适合语言服务行业人士和对语言服务感兴趣的广大社会读者作为参考书使用。希望文库的出版能为我国的语言服务发展贡献一份力量。

【目录】

Acknowledgements

List of figures and tables

Abbreviations

Introduction

CHAPTER 1

Crowdsourcingand collaborative translationin Translation Studies:Definitions and types

1.1 Introduction

1.2 The wider context:Thecrowdsourcingparadigm

1.2.1 Definitionsof crowdsourcing

1.2.2 Typologiesof crowdsourcing

1.2.2.1 Estelles and Gonzalez(2012b)typologyof crowdsourcing

1.2.2.2 Brabham's(2008,2013)typology of crowdsourcing

1.3 Collaboration intranslation

1.3.1 Translation crowdsourcing

1.3.2 Online collaborativetranslations

1.3.3 Common featuresof crowdsourcing and onlinecollaborative translations

1.3.4 Distinguishingfeatures of crowdsourcing and onlinecollaborative translations

1.4 Definitions of translationcrowdsourcing and typesof collaborativepracticesin TS

1.5 Mapping crowdsourcing intorelated TSconcepts

1.6 Classifications of online collaborative translations

1.7 Which translations are outsourced?Of preferredgenresand translation types

CHAPTER 2

The emergence of crowdsourcing and online collaborative translations

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Collaborative translations:A brief historical overviewuntil the Internetera(until 1980)

2.3 The emergenceof personalcomputing,the Internetandthe WwW(1980-1995)

2.4 Participatorycultureson theInternet as a foundationfor collaborative translations(1980s)

2.5 Thedevelopmentof collaborative translations on the web(1995-2005)

2.5.1 The emergence of fansubbing

2.5.2 The early days of videogame "rom hacking"and opensoftwarelocalization

2.5.3 The emergence of crowdsourcing and collaborativetranslationtechnological platforms(2000-2005)

2.6 Crowdsourcing translation goes mainstream(2005-2010):From social networking sites to Wikipedia and non-profit initiatives

2.7 A continuing evolution:Paid crowdsourcingand theexplorationof the limits of crowdsourcing(2010-20xx)

CHAPTER 3

Crowdsourcing and theindustry:From workflowsto prescriptive approaches

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Revolutionizingtraditional professional translation processes

3.3 Crowdsourcing processes from aworkflow perspective

3.4 Workflows and novel approaches totranslation

3.4.1 Social networking sites:Facebook

3.4.2 Non-Profits:Kiva and Trommons

3.4.3 MT post-editing:Asia Online and Crowdin

3.4.4 Audiovisual translation:TED and Amara

3.4.5 The fansubbing process

3.5 Crowdsourcing platforms:An overview

3.6 Post-editingMTand crowdsourcing

3.7 Crowdsourcing and prescription:Industry andthe case of motivation

CHAPTER 4

Crowdsourcing and Cognitive Translation Studies:Movingbeyond the individuals mind

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Distributed andextended cognition inthe ageoftranslation crowdsourcing

4.2.1 The introduction of embodied,situated and extended cognition approaches totranslation

4.3 But what is anexpert anyhow?Insights fromCognitiveTranslatology

4.3-1 Expertise intranslation andnon-professionals:Findings

4.4 Othersignificant issuesinCT:Cognition,technology andemotions

4.5 Reflections on new methodologies:Internet-mediated methodsandcollaborative translation protocols

CHAPTER 5

Crowdsourcing:Challenges totranslation quality

5.1 Introduction

5-2 Translation quality:A multifractal notion in constant evolution

5.3 Dynamicity in models of translation qualit:Towards adaptable modelsof quality

5.31 Quality tiers in MT:Towards amodel for crowdsourcingand collaborative models

5.3.2 Paidcrowdsourcing and thecustomizationof translation quality

5-4 Guaranteeingquality in crowdsourcing

5.5 Crowdsourcing,quality andchallenges to TS

5.5.1 Translationtheory:A prerequisite for quality evaluation?

5.5.2 The minimalunit to evaluate quality:Between internaland external quality

5.5-3 Is translationqualityalways improvingthrough theprocess?

5.5-4 Crowdsourcing anddiferentassessment types

5.5-5 Translation qualityinMT

5.6 A criticalreview of the iterative translate/vote crowdsourcingapproachesin thelight of Translation Studies

5.6.1 The Facebookmodeland reader-response approaches

5.6.2 The iterative quality modelsand functionalistapproaches

5.6.3 Corpus-assisted approaches

5.7 Empirical studies oncrowdsourcing translation quality in TS

CHAPTER 6

Texts andcrowdsourcing:Perspectives fromtextual,discursiveand linguistic approaches

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Definingtexts inan eraof dynamic textsproducedin collaboration

6.3 The atomization of texts in TS:From TMtolocalization

6.3.1 Textual segmentationand TM

6.3.2 Textual segmentationand localization

6.4 Texts in a crowdsourcing era:Insights from linguistics and TS

6.5 “Entire texts”asthe unit of translation:The crowdsourcing perspective

6.6 The“unit of translation”andcrowdsourcing

6.7 Redefining crowdsourced "texts"as atranslation product

CHAPTER7

Fansubs and AVT norms

7.1 Introduction

7.2 From professional norms to “abusive subtitling”...and back

7.3 Translation and subtitlingnorms in fansubbing research

7.4 Fansubbing or how collaboration canchallenge translation norms

7.4.1 Challenges to professional audiovisual normsfrom fansubbing

7.5 Challenges to subtitling norms:A summary

CHAPTER 8

Crowdsourcing:Insights from the sociology of translation

8.1 Introduction

8.2 The "sociological turn"in TS

8.2.1 Bourdieu's theory offields and the translator's "habitu"

8.2.2 Latour's Actor-Networktheory and collaborative translations

8.3 Overlapping turns:Whenthe sociologicaland the technological turns collide

8.3.1 Crowdsourcingand the "economicturn"

8.3.2 The “activist turn”andcollaborativepractices

8.4 Ethics of translationina participatorydigital world

8.4.1 TS research into theethicsof crowdsourcing

8.4.2 Copyright infringementandfansubbing

8.5 Methodologies fromthesocial sciences in research into collaborative practices

8.5.1 Questionnaireand surveymethodologies in the studyof crowdsourcing

8.5.2 Netnographic approachesand mixed methods

8.6 Motivationto participate in online collaborative initiatives:Asummary

8.7 Volunteerprofiles:Asummary

CHAPTER9

Crowdsourcing and translation training

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Crowdsourcing andcollaborative translationin training:The path fromvolunteer to professional

9.3 Are online collaborative practices "acidentaltraining"environments?

9.4 Socio-constructivist approaches and crowdsourcing

9.4.1 The development of online collaborative trainingmodels

9.5 The search for constructive feedback:Onthe identifcationof initiatives that can enhance students learning

9.5.1 Neunzigand Tanqueiro's(2005)classificationof online translation feedback

9.5-2 Aclassification of collaborative initiatives on the basisof feedback

9.6 Translationcompetence modelsin Cognitive Translatology the development of translation competence and collaborative voluntarism

9.6.1 Translation competence in TS

9.6.2 The PACTE and TRANSCOMP translationcompetence models

9.6.3 The acquisitionof translation competence

9.7 Componential translationcompetence modelsfromthe perspectiveof collaborative voluntarism

CHAPTER 10 Conclusions

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Language industry perspectivesand impact on the profession

10.3 Impact on TranslationStudies

Refercnces

Index